Professor Rakdo Lobsang Tenzin Rinpoche, 

Translator: Passang Dekey Lama

Land of Tibet

Namo Guru Bhaisajyaye

From the Condensed Prajnaparamita: “However many rivers flow in this world, producing flowers, forests, medicines and fruits – they depend upon the Naga(Serpent) kings dwelling in undisturbed abode. This is the glory and power of the lord of nagas.” As stated by the Guide, the Mighty Sage, major rivers like the Yarlong Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) and the Sengge Khabab (Indus), which are the sources of most of the great rivers of the Asian continent, originate from snow mountains like Mount Kailash and Mount Everest, and from lakes like MaDros Pa, Tri Shor Gyalmo, and Namtso Chukmo, among others. The land where these are found is called Pü Gyal Böyül (Tibet) or Trivishtapam – the Land of Three Heights. This highland, now also called the “Third Pole” of the world, gradually rose higher during the formation of the cosmic age, and human civilization emerged and flourished here as it did throughout the world.

As the physical environment gradually formed and became habitable, human beings appeared, and according to their development, ten successive rulers held sway – they were Yakshas, Demons, Ogres NyaRing, Trakchik and Marjam Lha, Mu, Gyel, Khorje, Krokrok, Dre, and the nine MaSang brothers who held power. These are described as non-humans. Even today, beings like yakshas, nāgas, mu, and gongpo are considered powerful non-human types that inspire both respect and fear, so this description seems appropriate. Even today, in some places there are stone structures attributed to MaSang that are impossibly large for humans to move, and similar occurrences. Some of these non-humans intermarried with humans and their lineages continued – as saying goes  the origins of the Khön lineage of the Sakya tradition. There are many such accounts worth examining even today. The land ruled by them was not uniformly called “Böd” as it is now, but rather Zang Yul Gyen Med, Kha Rag Mogo Gu, Sin Yul Nakpo, Lha Yul Gung Tang, Da Trang Chang Trang, La Tang Ling Tang, Böd Ka Nya Druk, Böd Kham Nya Druk, and Böd Kham Ling Gu – these names were used in succession. Some of these names like Kha Rag, Jomo Kha Rag, and Mangyul Gung Tang are still used in some places today, arising from particular characteristics. The current name “Böd” (Tibet) clearly derives from Böd Kha Nya Druk and Böd Kham Ling Gu. In Sanskrit, Tibet is called Trivishtapam (the land where the three mighty gods – Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu – dwell), as is clear from many Vedic narratives (Tato Prona). This connects with Tibetan historical accounts of the ten rulers mentioned earlier. Those who have faith in the Vedas still hold great reverence for Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarovar, suggesting this connection. Scholars with knowledge should investigate this further.

According to historical accounts, human beings in Tibet originated from the union of a monkey and a rock ogress, and their descendants gradually became the six clans of Dra, Dru, Dong, Ga, Nubo, and Padha, from which all Tibetan lineages descended. The land where they dwelt is described as: “Upper Ngari, the trilogy looks like a lake; Central Ü-Tsang, the four ranges looks like a canal; Lower Dokham, the six ranges look like fields” – this realm is known in the divine language as Böd. Along with this, various arts and sciences gradually developed, and particularly, as illness arose together with human beings, the medical sciences for healing and maintaining health also developed alongside. This can be seen from the historical verse: “The first illness is Indigestion and the first medicine is boiled water.”

Glawa (Musk Deer) and Glartsi (Musk)

Thus, the unique geography, environment, and climate of the high plateau of Tibet have given rise not only to a distinctive human population but also to unique animal species. Some of these have become extinct, while others still survive today as Marmot, Rodent,  Stoat and various ground-dwelling animals. Birds like Vultures, Eagles, and Ravens, that fly high and can survive long periods without breathing. Hawk, Falcon, Snow leopards, Tibetan wolves, brown bears, hill-dog, lynx etc. are skilled wild predators. Wild ass, Gazelles, Species leopard cat (Gung),Wild Sheep(Ngyen), Bharal(Gnawa), Deer, Musk deer comes under wild Antelope groups. Bird species like Wood Thrush, Magpie, lark, Cuckoo, Barn Swallow, Swallow etc. The Pheasant, the Quail, the Kingfisher, and others Aves that dig the ground with their beak. There are also creatures living in both wet and dry environments like Otter and Porcupine. Frogs and tadpole, shoal of fish, are aquatic species and many more marvelous species of animals are found there.  These animals have remarkable ways of living and behaving. Some are hunted for their meat, blood, hides, and fur, while others like musk are hunted for medicinal purposes and traded at high prices both for export and domestic use. This economic cycle has continued uninterrupted from ancient times to the present. Among these animals, the Glawa (musk deer)exists only in Tibet on this earth, making the musk gland from its body not only one of Tibet’s most important trade commodities throughout history, but also an incomparable remedy for many serious and life-threatening diseases.

Habitat of the Musk Deer

Generally, musk deer live only in Tibet, and specifically in the border areas between nomadic and agricultural lands - in forest valleys where Alpine willows, Dwarf rhododendron, Juniper, and Rhododendron, grow. They do not inhabit extremely high snow regions, completely barren valleys and plains, or dense forests with pine(thang shing) and sal trees. Unlike wild ass (kiang), and Wild sheep (Ngyen), Bharal (Gnawa) that live in herds, musk deer live solitary lives, scattered individually. Because they must constantly be wary of predators like lynx ,leopards and wolves, they do not move about openly during the day and are rarely seen. When searching for water and food, they generally follow the same paths rather than wandering freely, making them vulnerable to traps set by heartless hunters and to ambush by predators. Throughout the twelve months of the year, female musk deer are pregnant or nursing, with usually only one fawn born per pregnancy, making them a species with low population numbers. In ancient times, when Tibet was a Buddhist land with little harm to others and with many laws and methods for environmental protection, along with restrictions on hunting, there was no danger of extinction for important wild animals like musk deer. However, in this modern age, all the former environmental protection laws and methods have been set aside as superstition and unscientific, and in this era when greed and avarice are given free rein, important wild animals face great danger of extinction. Therefore, it is extremely important for wise people to think broadly and deeply about this.

Some foreigners claim that musk deer exist in places like China's Xinjiang and that there are three types including striped musk deer, and that Chinese musk is of inferior quality to Tibetan musk. This is similar to how Indians wrote a history of the Tibetan yak, and nowadays some scholars follow this, claiming three types of musk deer: those living in snow, those with stripes, and those living in forests. But it is quite remarkable to suggest musk deer live in forests and snow mountains. Native Tibetans who live in musk deer habitat traditionally recognized two types - gray and brownish - which medical texts like those of Deu Marwa also followed. But claims that black musk deer climb trees and eat branches, as in the story of Drukpa Kunleg who said "I saw Sakya Pandita with broad vision, I saw a mule faster than a horse" - such tales are like those not examined by scholars.

Regarding color differences, old hunters say it depends on age. The Arab writer Masudi who lived in the 10th century wrote in detail about musk deer and musk in his work "Meadows of Gold," describing how their appearance and horns are similar to goats, the distinctive feature being the musk deer's fangs. This would make any Tibetan elder who lives among musk deer laugh heartily, as there is a Tibetan saying about musk deer: "A female Glawa has no small horns - if she had them, she would be of the jewel type." This is used as an example in logic to prove non-existence, like claiming rabbits have horns - it demonstrates what does not exist.

Only male musk deer have musk glands, not females. A two-year-old male is called Gla thang, and while it has the foundation of the musk gland, it is not yet mature so the quality is poor. As the deer ages, the musk matures better and the quality improves. In Tibetan historical accounts, when describing the political governance of ancient kings, it is stated that politics was conducted according to "rdrung, ldheu, and bön" - the three. Ldheu refers to examples and logical reasoning combined, so even today some traditional sayings remain among Tibetan elders. There are distinctive characteristics of musk deer in the form of ldheu or proverbs: "Ears small and drooping like a donkey, black nose like a dog, red fangs like a tiger, musk deer hide like a queen's silk, wool roots white like sheep, wool tips brownish like wild yak, good musk number six for medicine." Such sayings clearly show the general and specific characteristics of musk deer, particularly male musk deer. Ldheu is when someone is asked about a matter through examples, and if they answer correctly without error, it is called "khed" (got it). "The" means it belongs to that category or is similar.

While herbivores generally have no upper front teeth, male musk deer have two upper canine teeth, which are long and curve downward - from a distance they look somewhat like elephant tusks but do not curve upward. Ancient people wore one or two musk deer fangs set in silver clasps on their chests or backs as protection against harmful spirits, and also used them to make toothpicks. Musk deer fur is described as similar to wool or cashmere, but it is quite coarse and stiff like needles, so it is not suitable for wool or cashmere products. However, it does not retain moisture and is warm, making it unrivaled by other materials for cushions and seats. Properly tanned musk deer hide, with the fur and roughness removed, becomes soft and supple like royal silk, and can be made into clothing, thread, and bedding of exceptional warmth and beauty.

Musk

Thus, having discussed some essential background knowledge about musk, we come to the main topic. According to Sowarigpa, there is virtually nothing that cannot serve as medicine for disease. These can be categorized into three types: minerals, plants, and animal products. When further subdivided, there are thirteen types: precious stones, earths, medicinal plants, shrubs, salts, and animal-derived substances processed by water and fire. The fourth category of precious medicines includes those derived from plants, shrubs, and animals – five types. The last includes Solidify bile (Giwang), empowered pills (Wang ril)  and Musk. Generally, “tsi” (essence) has multiple meanings including essence, transformative agent, and so on. It is primarily part of the term “düdtsi” (amrita). Düdtsi is a Sanskrit word: amṛta, meaning “deathless.” According to legend, when the gods sought a substance to make themselves immortal, they churned the ocean for eons and obtained a substance called düdtsi. When they consumed it, what spilled gave rise to medicines in general and particularly to precious medicines. There are many such narrative traditions. Glartsi (musk) is a part of the body of the musk deer, specifically the final essence of the seven bodily constituents, similar to how white and red essences develop in mature humans. As mentioned earlier, musk matures when the deer reaches its prime. Moreover, just as the phases of the external moon affect the internal essences of sentient beings, experienced people say that semen and musk similarly follow these patterns. During the southern passage of the sun in the yearly cycle – from autumn month onwards – musk gradually improves in quality. There is an experiential saying among locals: “If you don’t eat the ram’s meat in the ram month, the musk will be like water.”

The musk gland Is located in the skin below the navel of the musk deer, like a swollen pustule that does not burst when touched. At its center is an opening through which the genital emerges and urine is expelled. There is matted fur around the sides, and the fruit (gland) extends back from there.

The musk gland Is flat and round, not very thick (generally about 7cm thick and up to 15cm wide), with size varying according to the deer’s age and whether it is wild or captive – there is no fixed size. When hunters remove the musk gland, they take the entire pod with the surrounding skin about the size of a hand’s span. To make it appear larger for sale, they stretch it outward from the edges using a round stick like a small barrel and dry it. To make it heavier, they gather the surrounding skin toward the center and burn and compress it with heated iron or similar tools. Thus the front side has furry skin and the back has regular skin, completely wrapped around, and though it appears as a single piece when whole, when cut open there are many capsules, each individually wrapped in very thin skin and tightly sealed so they do not burst when touched – these are called “tsi thum” (musk capsules). Inside each capsule are round or various shapes filled with fragrant, brownish-colored granules like seeds – these are called “tsi drum” (musk grains), and larger grains are considered better quality.

In “Meadows of Gold,” some methods for testing musk quality are mentioned, including that good musk has two or three openings, with more openings being the best quality. There is also mention of “snake-head musk” where a snake dies inside the musk gland while the male deer is alive, making musk containing snakes remain proof and considered supreme. This is similar to praise for elephant gallbladder that is hollowed out by bile. The dried duct in the center of the musk is the deer’s genus – hunters do not remove it, and while experienced buyers know to extract it, inexperienced ones buy it along with everything else. Traders remove it both to reduce weight and to make the gland appear larger.

Native Tibetan, lacking external sophisticated tools, would check with an awl or needle to examine stitching and look for signs of human manipulation. They would pierce it with a needle to examine the musk grains by smell, touch, and color, and finally thoroughly test how it dissolves in water. There is a traditional saying that Hawk, when they kill musk deer to eat them, first discard the musk gland because they know it benefits humans, so they do this out of ill will. However, since many animals instinctively know the benefits and harms of certain things, perhaps Hawk also know this.

Use of Musk in Medicine

Generally, the rationale for using any substance as medicine is that it treats disease, and particularly animal flesh and blood have been essential necessities of life throughout the development of civilization. Needless to say, musk has been relied upon as a remedy for disease. The medical texts now available are not arbitrary writings but records of experiences gained through immeasurable suffering and happiness – all scholars agree on this. Therefore, in the existing Tibetan medical texts, the Sorig Bum Zhi states: “Musk eliminates poison, parasites, and liver and spleen diseases”. Musk is beneficial for poisons combined with disease causes, parasitic worms that consume skin and internal organs, and particularly for diseases (viruses) caused by disturbances of Mamo and Dakini forces, and other externally caused diseases. It is also beneficial for diseases related to the kidneys and liver. Many other formulations containing musk are mentioned in that text for treating spirits and Ngyen. Similarly, the medical text Shog Dril (Palm-Leaf Manuscript) from Tunhuangcontains many blood-purifying and anti-parasitic formulations containing musk. Musk’s properties and many compound formulations containing it are also described in works like Dawe Gyalpo, Jhang Khog Dmar Khrid Yig Chung, and others. Based on these, the Tibetan medical text Gyü Zhi (Four Tantras) also teaches the nature and properties of musk and many formulations containing these properties. Musk has been an indispensable medicinal substance in Tibetan medicine from ancient times to the present, and is an exceptional ingredient in fragrant compound formulations.

Tibetan Musk and Foreign Countries

Tibet’s neighboring countries – India to the south, China to the east, Tajikistan to the west, and Russia to the north – have placed great trust and high regard on Tibetan medicines and material goods. For example, in the great Indian epic Ramayana, when the Rama was struck by a demon’s poisoned arrow in battle with the demon king, the medicine to heal him was brought from the snowy mountains (Tibet) by Hanuman. Similarly, in China there are oral traditions and in Chinese medical texts (Nyer Mkho’I Sngo ‘Bum, in Chinese) stating that medicine from Tibet (Shi-Thang) can cure any disease and can even bring someone back from death’s door. The special properties of musk have long been known to them.

Some claim the first mention of musk in Tibetan and foreign historical documents was by a Roman monk in the 6^th century (545 BC), though this is uncertain. However, in the middle turning of the Dharma wheel by the Buddha – in the intermediate Prajñāpāramitā texts – it is clearly shown using the example that even the scent of musk causes poisonous snakes to flee, demonstrating that practitioners of transcendent wisdom are not harmed by evil forces or obstacles. This use of example to clarify meaning is common across societies and peoples – using the sun as an example to explain solar principles to a society or person who understands the sun’s true nature. One cannot explain something using an example to someone who doesn’t know the example itself – that would be like describing colors to someone born blind.

According to Tibetan history, the earliest and longest-lasting foreign relations were with southern India, ruled by the King of Dharma, and eastern China, ruled by the King of Law. Relations also developed with western Tazig(Iran) known in Tibetan lore as the King of Wealth. Most Tibetan histories record that King Songtsen Gampo (617 CE) expanded Tibet’s political power and established deep economic and cultural relations with China, India, and Tazig (Iran), importing many of their advanced legal systems and sciences. Among the three emanated sons invited for medical matters, the Persian physician Galenos (Gallen) was invited and later appointed as the king’s physician, and remained in Tibet to spread politics and culture. This was not a sudden occurrence but resulted from earlier trade and military relations between the two countries. As stated by Iranian scholar Ronit Yoeli Tilalim in “Asian Medicine Tradition and Modernity”: “Musk is an exceptionally fine fragrant incense substance, and when comparing Arab and Tibetan medical texts, one can understand that these two peoples exchanged knowledge about the uses and experiences of musk through trade relations.” This shows the very long history of relations between these two peoples.

Tibetan musk was an important luxury item for the wealthy and especially for royal palaces in Persia (IRAN) and other Muslim lands, and was also an excellent substance for offerings and for purifying pollution and impurities. In Ali Mazaheri’s “Cultural Exchange between China and Iran” (published 2014 by China Tibetan Studies Publishing House), in a section titled “Conversation with the Persian Ambassador (Khusraw Parvez),” when the king asked what the finest fragrant incense was, the ambassador replied that it was incense water mixed with musk and tulsi, or the fragrance of water lily seasoned with musk. When the king asked what the scent of heaven was, after mentioning the names of various Persian fragrant flowers, the ambassador finally replied: “The musk of Tibet and the amber of Zhingshili (Chinese transliteration) are the heavenly fragrances used by those in the Pure Land.” Considering this, musk was one of Tibet’s most highly valued trade goods in those regions.

Some histories claim that Tibetan-Persian (IRAN) relations began after the Persian prophet (Muhammad), but according to “Cultural Exchange between China and Iran” (Ali Mazaheri), these relations predated the Persian prophet, going back to when the Kushan dynasty ruled northwestern lands. The word previously written as “Drugu” in Tibetan is actually the pronunciation with the Turkish spelling, which when read with Tibetan suffix and postfix sounds produces “Duruka.” Even today some people in Ngari and Ladakh and other Tibetan groups pronounce words with suffix and postfix sounds. Tibetan histories mention Durusha and Tod Hor in various forms, and in places like Khyungpo (Sumpa) in Kham where the Gesar epic is very popular, elderly people still tell stories from the Hor Ling war epic. When King Gesar and his army subdued the Hor kingdom, some Hor black tent nomads fled to the upper regions, hence they are called Tod Hor (Upper Hor). They tell that in the future, Tod Hor armies will rise and harm Tibet’s Buddhist teachings, which disturbs people’s minds. This is because they are the karmic enemies of the realm’s glory and the incomparable white wolf guru, so since he lives without birth or death waiting at the snow passes of upper Ngari, there is no fault, they say. Nowadays such tales are not valued, but if one thinks about the actual meaning, the mirror of oral tradition can show reflections of the history from the time of the Tibetan emperors.

Here when discussing musk as a trade commodity in the commercial relations between Tazig(Iran) and Tibet, the mention of Drugu or Durusha is because: Drugu was located along the trade route between Tibet and Tazig, and merchants from both countries (Tibet and China) had to travel via two major routes. One was from Tibet through Kashmir, and the other through the northern highland route connecting to the Silk Road and through what is now Xinjiang. Along these routes, the Drugu people regularly plundered merchants and their trade goods, becoming enemies of the Tibetans and engaging in many battles. They also exploited internal conflicts, splitting into eastern and western factions called Eastern and Western Durusha. The smaller Rutriwas Eastern Durusha (which the Chinese called Greater and Lesser Rutri) – this is what is now called Xinjiang. Some of these nomads submitted to Tibet and mixed with Tibetans, hence called Thoekar, also called Thoegar. Most submitted to China (military commanders) and came under Xinjiang and Gansu’snorthern territories. The greater Rotri migrated west and established settlements called Turkistan (Kurki-Sthan). The Kushan dynasty existed from approximately 55 to 425 CE and was a powerful empire.

Around 139 BCE, the Chinese Han Dynasty’s Western Emperor sent his minister Zhang Qian to establish relations with the greater Rotri in the western regions. The route he took westward later became known as the Chinese Silk Road, an important east-west trade route. From around the time of Tibetan Emperor Songtsen Gampo (617 CE), the various trade route bandits were pacified, and as foreign policy was redirected toward India and China, the policy toward Drugu or Turkistan was “to draw a line on gray leather from the north” – meaning that since not only Drugu but most of Central Asia (Tibetan Imperial Central Asia) was under the control of the Tibetan Emperor, there was no need for vigilance or coercion against them.

In summary, musk – the supreme essence (magiṭa) from the unique musk deer living in the land of Tibet – was not only Tibet’s unique trade commodity and an important instrument for economic, cultural and foreign relations with other countries, but from many centuries before the Common Era it spread to Tibet’s neighboring countries as a renowned remedy for many diseases and particularly as an antidote to sudden death by poison. Especially after trade and foreign relations began with distant countries like Tazig (Iran), up to the present time, there has been no decline in trade relations, commodity value, or medicinal applications.

According to some Tibetan historical texts, during the long centuries of fragmentation after the decline of the Tibetan imperial lineage, there are very many accounts of various wise and foolish people from Nepal coming to Tibet in search of gold and musk. At that time, Tibetan had great faith in the Buddha’s teachings and were devoted to tantric practices, so they would trade gold and musk for empowerment and instructions, whether authentic or not – this became known as “gold for dharma.” As an example, when many Kalachakra tantras and instructions were spreading in Tibet and the Pandit Chandragomin (Somnath) came to Tibet, when translators including some earnest seekers requested the six-branch yoga of the Kalachakra and other teachings from him, he taught some important instructions to those earnest seekers, saying these were not available from anyone else, and if they wanted them they must offer this much musk. For some, he sent large amounts of this musk to a wealthy person in Nepal, and agreed to give the teachings when the return payment arrived (Buton’s Kalachakra History). Such seekers after musk have never ceased.

This brief discourse on musk was written by Ragdo Sudhī near the great stupa of Boudhanath in Nepal, and the scribe was Ngawang Kunkhyen who completed it on June 6, 2025. May virtue and goodness increase!